Re-learning gender: Non-binary identity around the world

This Pride month, as the first month that I have been out to the wider world as non-binary, I’d like to celebrate different non-binary gender identities as seen from across the world. This is by no means an exhaustive list or even full descriptions of the different gender identities I have listed, but more of an exploration that hopefully helps people understand that the enbies of today are part of a long and rich history of gender diversity.

Many people seem to hold the idea that non-binary gender identity was invented by Generation Z or is, at least, something relatively new. While it is not the Western mainstream representation of gender held at the moment, throughout history there are examples of non-binary gender identity and documented gender fluidity, and in many cases it was in fact Western colonialism that largely stamped it out.

Additionally, it is of vital importance to learn what individuals from these cultures have to say about their experience and they, of course, can give unparalleled insight, so I have listed some resources alongside their introductions. We must re-learn the standard binary and Western-centric view of gender to move forward in creating a wider understanding of gender that can encompass everyone.

The gender binary as a modern concept

Without even digging into the biological issues of the gender binary regarding sex (although this is well explained here), from both a historical and cultural perspective the gender binary is a pretty new concept that has been so deeply entrenched in our social concepts that we don’t question its assumption.

While throughout history most cultures have gender models that would include what we refer to as cis male and cis female gender identities, the gender binary with its strict limitation to only those two identities is a pretty new concept with its basis in the European Christian Church, with earlier religions and cultures recognising genders beyond the two.

The way we think about dismantling the gender binary going forward must seek to abandon the colonial ideas that have come to define gender and I think part of this decolonisation of our conception is understanding the ways it has historically been known and described.

The gender-neutral they singular

Something that comes up surprisingly often, and almost always when I first introduce myself, and is common for many non-binary people who use they/them pronouns, is the apparent importance of grammar around using ‘they’ as a singular pronoun. I would first and foremost make the argument that grammar is ever-changing and evolving and its function is to communicate meaning, so if you understood the sentence the grammar is irrelevant. Furthermore, the idea that grammar could be more important than someone’s identity and comfort expressing themselves feels incredibly warped, making the whole argument both short-sighted and lacking in empathy.

However, for those pedantic people who are still not convinced, you can helpfully point out that that the singular ‘they’ has in fact been a standard gender-neutral pronoun in English for hundreds of years. It was only in 1745 that grammarians began to say it was no longer acceptable as the neutral pronoun does not exist in Latin, and instead said ‘he’ should be used as the acceptable gender neutral pronoun.

Given that in everyday language when you don’t know the gender of an individual, people generally use ‘they’ (e.g. the robber ran past us, they were wearing a mask so I don’t know what they looked like), unless someone insists on using ‘he’ as the gender neutral pronoun it makes no sense to claim ‘they’ is grammatically incorrect. Unfortunately I’ve found that people making this argument are usually trying to force you into picking a camp along the gender binary and don’t actually care about grammar, but hopefully they won’t be able to make pretences about it once you point out the error in their attempted correction.

Examples of non-binary gender identities

Native America: Two Spirit

One of the most (recently) well-known forms of non-binary gender identity is the Native American Two Spirit which dates back for centuries with over a hundred tribes recognising more than two genders. Two Spirit refers to someone who identifies with both a feminine and masculine spirit, potentially describing someone’s spiritual, gender or sexual identity. The English term itself was only recently created in 1990 to replace the previous French term (‘berdache‘) which held connotations of male homosexuality and a presupposed gender binary, therefore failing to encompass its true meaning and leading to homophobic condemnation.

In encompassing all gender and sexual diversity outside the binary it is comparable to the term queer, but of course holds far deeper cultural and spiritual importance to Native Americans and cannot apply to a non-Indigenous person. Rather than emphasising a physical body, it is more common among Native American religions to focus on the spirit, which means that those who see themselves as Two Spirit is not seen as a transgender or transexual and looking to ‘transition’ as it were to the ‘opposite sex’, but are instead understood as a gender that is different to either men and women and offers gender and sexual identities across a spectrum of possibilities that does not limit someone to any gender or sexual identity.

For many, Two Spirit people are venerated as spiritual leaders and teachers. Since everything that exists comes from the spirit world, those who possess both masculine and feminine spirit are doubly blessed over and above someone we would define as cisgender. Additionally, as well as being spiritually important, among some groups such as the Navajo, practically they were seen to be of great value as their gender roles involved both masculine and feminine, they could perform both kinds of work.

Two Spirit filmmaker, Marjorie Beaucage, made the film film Coming In Stories: Two Spirit in Saskatchewan to raise awareness of the experience of Two Spirit people in Saskatchewan, exploring four stories of younger people in a short documentary.

Hawaii: Māhūs

In Native Hawaiian culture, māhū refers to a third gender that historically was revered as the keepers of customs and passers down of traditional practices. The first two genders (kane and wahine) correlate with cis male and cis female. While some have said it is simply the word for transgender, others have said it simply reflects anyone who falls outside of traditionally cis definitions of gender, expressing both their masculinity and femininity.

While someone’s external presentation may seem more masculine and feminine or even fluid day-to-day, someone that is māhū’s internal gender identity falls somewhere in between and is also allowed to flow and change over time, embracing multiple facets of their gender identity. In Native Hawaiian culture, everyone has a role, and māhūs were seen as caretakers, healers and teachers of ancient traditions and in Hawaiian mythology, the legend of Laka was the deity of hula who did not fall neatly into cisgender categorisation.

Hina Wong-Kalu, a transgender educator and activist from Hawaii, is the subject of the documentary, Kumu Hina, where she helps another young Hawaiian come to terms with identifying as māhū and is a great way to explore māhū identity from someone’s personal perspective.

India: Hijras

India’s Hijras have a recorded history of over 4000 years and are legally recognised in India as one type of third gender. Hijra identity is a unique and complicated blend of identities, including people assigned male at birth who could have undergone castration (but this is by no means necessary to be a Hijra) or undergone other body modifications, some intersex people (although not all) and transgender women.

To identify as Hijra, instead of transgender or another type of third gendered person, one must go through a ritual of adoption that could take years. Throughout India’s history, Hijra people have played a significant role, both in ancient texts like the Karma Sutra, Mahabharata and the Ramayana, but also in religion, where one of the forms of Shiva involves his merging with Parvati, his wife, to become the androgynous Ardhanari. As Hijras held religious and spiritual authority, often believed to have the power to bless and curse, they have historically been sought out for religious ceremonies.

Transindia is a 2015 documentary exploring the experience of Hijras through the eyes of their community in Ahmedabad, India. (You have to request a viewing online here in order to view).

Indonesia: The five genders of Sulawesi

The Indonesian island of Sulawesi is the home of the Bugis, the largest of the four main ethnic groups of South Sulawesi. The Bugis operate on a completely different gender framework, recognising five genders that are each essential in the maintenance of balance and harmony in society. The five genders are:

• Oroané: Corresponds to cis male.
• Makkunrai: Corresponds to cis female.
• Calalai’: Those who would be identified as female at birth but assume traditionally male gender roles.
• Calabai’: Those who would be identified as male at birth but assume traditionally female gender roles.
• Bissu: A class of traditional priests, who are seen as the embodiments of male, female, mortal and deity all at the same time. They are deemed above gender classification and outside of the gender spectrum.

Calalai’ might wear their hair short and work manual jobs, and Calabai’ might wear dresses and makeup and grow their hair long, as well as helping to plan weddings and perform at ceremonies. Crucially neither of these mean that they want to become oroané or makkunrai, but are comfortable sitting in a gender identity between (as non-binary gender expression). Bissu are seen as a sacred unity of identities and consequently can occupy an important spiritual role in Bugis religion as a ritual-leading priest.

Calalai: In Betweenness draws on knowledge from spiritual healers from the Bugis community as well as scholars to explore gender identity in Bugis culture, the spiritual background it comes from and the changes seen in the modern day.

Colonisation and oppression

Unsurprisingly, many non-binary gender identities have been, and still are, purposefully oppressed by Western colonisation.

In Hawaii, for example, gender diversity flourished before the island experienced European colonisation in the 18th century which led to intensive efforts to replace Hawaiian practices with Christian rituals, meaning that the space for māhūs disappeared.

For Native Americans, European Christian influence sought to exterminate alternative gender structures, through refusing to recognise same-sex marriages between two-spirit people and their spouses and the violent cultural assimilation in residential schools where two-spirit students were forced to conform to the gender binary. This enforced assimilation was so effective, as often those that refused were killed, that those identifying as Two Spirit today might be rejected by their families and tribes.

In India, colonial officials saw Hijras as deviating from British ideals of manhood and consequently ‘corrected’ their behaviour by forcefully cutting off their long hair, stripping them of feminine clothing and even banishing them from the public eye. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 aimed to completely eliminate them, revoking their civil rights and imprisoning them for dressing in a feminine way or engaging in the performances that were crucial to both their income and societal position, which ultimately lead to the systemic disenfranchisement of Hijras from society that endures in the form of severe discrimination today.

Across the board, colonisers believed that by eliminating influential cultural and spiritual practitioners and leaders, such as the Indonisian bissu, the Indian Hijra and the Hawaiian māhū, they could eliminate both their power and any associated beliefs to strengthen colonial power.

Embracing gender diversity

Something that has struck me about these different identities is that they completely reject the idea that anyone who does not fit into the gender binary wants to transition to the other ‘opposite’ gender, which often feels like the only option when experiencing gender dysphoria in a society that only seems to accept male and female identity.

Even for those that identify as cisgender, there are many ways that continuing to enforce strict gender roles remains damaging to individuals and society, from men’s entitlement over women’s bodies, unequal pay and opportunities, unevenly distributed household labour, coercive gender reassignment surgery and disbelief in male sexual assault. Breaking down assumptions about what gender ‘should’ look like can only benefit everyone.

Anyone finding their way amongst the many possible gender identities on the spectrum is following a long and ancient and often sacred line from many societies and cultures. This is clearly not new, and there aren’t more non-binary or gender fluid people than there were before, but people are more comfortable in exploring the many ways they can identify.

I have just scratched the surface of introducing different expressions of non-binary identity here, and if you’re interested in finding out more, this map of gender-diverse cultures might be a helpful place to start.

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Written by Yuying Zhu

Illustrated by Francesca Mariama